A noninvasive test that uses sound waves to evaluate the heart's chambers and valves. The normal P-wave contour on ECG The normal P-wave (Figure 1, upper panel) is typically smooth, symmetric and positive. Accessibility eCollection 2021. 2. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Cardiovasc. Left atria is one of the chamber of heart out of four chambers its situated above left ventricle it takes oxygenated blood from lungs and forward it to left ventrical so if the left atrial is enlarged it is most commonly in association with diastolic dysfunction, left ventricular hypertrophy, mitral valvular disease, and systemic hypertension. Left Atrial Enlargement: Its not uncommon to discover SB in healthy young individuals who are not well-trained. Other blood pressure drugs. [2] LAE has been found to be correlated to body size, independent of obesity, meaning that LAE is more common in people with a naturally large body size. High blood pressure and blood volume cause right atrial enlargement. ECG criteria follows: Regular rhythm with ventricular rate slower than 50 beats per minute. government site. eCollection 2014. Primary Mitral Valve Prolapse is distinguished by thickening of one or both valve flaps. Science Photo Library / Getty Images Types Cardiology 53 years experience. Also known as: Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE), Left atrial hypertrophy (LAH), left atrial abnormality. Please feel free to contact Chris Driver (cdriver@acc.org) or me (chungeug@umich.edu) with any questions. Unconfirmed means a cardiologist hasn't reviewed the EKG yet. Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). At Another Johns Hopkins Member Hospital: Masks are required inside all of our care facilities, COVID-19 testing locations on Maryland.gov. Left atrial enlargement , r-axis -57 FOIA need cardio follow up? Such a P-wave is calledP pulmonalebecause pulmonary disease is the most common cause (Figure1). The P-wave in lead II may, however,be slightly asymmetric by having two humps. Clin Cardiol. Left atrial enlargement (LAE) or left atrial dilation refers to enlargement of the left atrium (LA) of the heart, and is a form of cardiomegaly. To learn more, please visit our. had a stress test and holter monitor that came back normal 7 months ago. Based on a work athttps://litfl.com. Cookie Notice Conditions affecting the left side of the heart. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Learn how we can help 290 views Answered >2 years ago Thank A 36-year-old female asked: but I don't see any signs of left atrial enlargement on this EKG. If a Type 2 pattern is seen, the ECG needs to repeated to ensure proper lead placement, and a repeat ECG with V1 and V2 in higher intercostal leads should be performed: if there is no evidence of a Type 1 Brugada pattern, no further assessment is required unless there is a history of syncope or relevant family history. This rule does not apply to aVL. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Get the latest news and education delivered to your inbox, Left Ventricular Hypertrophy (LVH) ECG Review, Poor R Wave Progression (PRWP) ECG Review, Right Atrial Enlargement (RAE) ECG Review, Right Ventricular Hypertrophy (RVH) ECG Review, Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE) ECG (Example 1), Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE) ECG (Example 2), Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE) with P-Mitrale ECG. It's located in the upper half of the heart and on the left side of your body. Int J Mol Sci. is this anything of concern? Heart hypertrophy as a risk factor. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. This is a noninvasive test that produces comprehensive images of the heart. Ther. In an asymptomatic athlete, RBBB in isolation with QRS duration <140msec and in the absence of significant repolarization abnormalities does not warrant further investigation. Primary Mitral Valve Prolapse. With this procedure, X-rays are taken after a contrast agent is injected into an artery to locate any narrowing, occlusions, or other abnormalities of specific arteries. percent of the population. Read More Created for people with ongoing healthcare needs but benefits everyone. She took an ECG today and it came as borderline abnormal ECG. Aortic insufficiency generates left cavities overload propitiating left atrial and left ventricular enlargement. }, #FOAMed Medical Education Resources byLITFLis licensed under aCreative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. . If atrial fibrillation or severe left atrial enlargement is present, treatment with an anticoagulant may be recommended. 2016 Aug;9(8):10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.004299 e004299. National Library of Medicine Review how to diagnose this on an ECG here. The .gov means its official. People with rhythm disturbances may need to be treated with beta blockers or other medications to control tachycardias (fast heart rhythms). Symptoms may vary depending on the degree of prolapse present and may include: Palpitations. The normal P-wave (Figure 1, upper panel) is typically smooth, symmetric and positive. Dr. Jerome Zacks answered. In any case, the association between interatrial block and left atrial enlargement is relatively frequent. . The left atrial index was also higher in the hypertensive group, 2.18 +/- 0.45 versus 1.88 +/- 0.10 cm/m2 (p less than 0.05), and the left atrial-to-aortic root dimension ratio was significantly higher in the hypertensive group, 1.36 +/- 0.20 versus 1.17 +/- 0.07 (p less than 0.01). Left atrial enlargement (LAE) is due to pressure or volume overload of the left atrium. Congenital Heart Disease and Pediatric Cardiology. worrisome? AO 1.8 and ECG criteria independent of left atrial indexed diameter z-score C1: P wave duration 110msec C2 . The atria may become dilated and/or hypertrophic during pathological circumstances. Conditions affecting the left side of the heart", "Atrial Fibrillation (for Professionals)", "Recommendations for chamber quantification", Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Left_atrial_enlargement&oldid=1094952349, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 25 June 2022, at 14:45. still having mild vertigo, dizziness and fatigue. This can be in the form of . } Accuracy of left atrial enlargement diagnosed by electrocardiography as compared to cardiac magnetic resonance in hypertensive patients. For more information, please see our By rejecting non-essential cookies, Reddit may still use certain cookies to ensure the proper functionality of our platform. Twitter: @rob_buttner. In most cases, limiting stimulants, such as caffeine and cigarettes, is all that is needed to control symptoms. In some situations where symptoms are more severe, additional diagnostic procedures may be performed. Bookshelf I am guessing your doctor a You should be fine, trust your doctor, that machine reading is quite common. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Doctors typically provide answers within 24 hours. Mitral valve prolapse, also known as click-murmur syndrome, eCollection 2022. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Related article: Bays syndrome and interatrial blocks. In addition, in lead V1, the depth of the negative final component is greater than the height of the initial part. Reply Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. The duration of the P-wave will exceed 120 milliseconds in lead II. Left atrial abnormality on the electrocardiogram (ECG) has been considered an early sign of hypertensive heart disease. [1] Also, a study found that LAE can occur as a consequence of atrial fibrillation (AF),[3] although another study found that AF by itself does not cause LAE. Sun Y, Zhang Y, Xu N, Bi C, Liu X, Song W, Jiang Y. This is caused by too much pressure on the heart, which could be related to high blood pressure, stress, and underlying heart disease. Over time, the repetitive stretching of the left atrium may result in a persistent left atrial enlargement.[5]. This is often (but not always) seen on ordinary ECG tracings and it is explained by the fact that the atria are depolarized sequentially, with the right atrium being depolarized before the left atrium. Atrial fibrillation is both cause and effect of left atrial enlargement, although the presence of AF on the EKG makes it difficult to determine left atrial enlargement signs, because P waves are absent4. In secondary Mitral Valve Prolapse, the flaps are not thickened. Weight gain. . font-weight: normal; Look for other features of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy if the preceding J-point is not elevated. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. Normally the flaps are held tightly closed during left ventricular contraction (systole) by the chordae tendineae (small tendon "cords" that connect the flaps to the muscles of the heart). Right atrial enlargement produces a peaked P wave ( P pulmonale) with amplitude: > 2.5 mm in the inferior leads (II, III and AVF) > 1.5 mm in V1 and V2. The ECG contour of the normal P-wave, P mitrale (left atrial enlargement) and P pulmonale (right atrial enlargement) 4. Also known as: Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE), Left atrial hypertrophy (LAH), left atrial abnormality. The Septal Q wave can hint on a possible left sided disease if any. 1. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090903. is the bulging of one or both of the mitral valve flaps (leaflets) ECG criteria follows: Sinus bradycardia (SB) is considered a normal finding in the following circumstances: In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding. 2 weeks dizzy on and off Reddit and its partners use cookies and similar technologies to provide you with a better experience. One or both of the flaps may not close properly, allowing the blood Barlow's syndrome, balloon mitral valve, or floppy valve syndrome, These cookies do not store any personal information. Int J Gen Med. For example, because of the smaller distance in the thoracic cavity between the sternum and spine, compared to the other directions, less room exists for enlargement of the left atrium along the anteroposterior axis. Cardiac MRI. There are numerous pathological conditions that cause sinus bradycardia. In fact, it has been considered that the bimodal P wave is better explained because of underlying interatrial block than the longer distance that the impulse has to go across6. Signs and symptoms [ edit] Left atrial enlargement can be mild, moderate or severe depending on the extent of the underlying condition. When left atrial enlargement occurs, it takes longer for cardiac action potentials to travel through the atrial myocardium; thus, the P wave also lengthens. Electrocardiogram (ECG) This imaging test records the electrical actions of the heart, including the speed of the heartbeats. Obesity has also been related to left atrial enlargement, although the mechanism is not very clear2. left ventricular hypertrophy is clearly related to the left atrial enlargement, so those causes that cause LVH as hypertension, aortic stenosis or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can lead to left atrial enlargement. Chest pain associated with Mitral Valve Prolapse is different from chest pain associated with coronary artery disease and is a frequent complaint. Circulation. By using our website, you consent to our use of cookies. and transmitted securely. Terminate or adjust any medications that cause or aggravate the bradycardia. Due to changes in sympathetic and parasympathetic tone, the PR interval decreases to 98 ms (mean) by the age of 1 month. } low voltage qrs Sinus arrhythmia is a kind of arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm). Determinants of left atrial appendage volume in stroke patients without chronic atrial fibrillation. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. There the circle starts. borderline/ normal ecg Research suggests that left atrium size as measured by an echo-cardiograph may be linked to cardiovascular disease. flow of blood), if present at all, is generally mild. Epub 2016 Apr 14. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.004299. If your health care provider thinks you have left ventricular hypertrophy, imaging tests may be done to look at the heart. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Your findings of low voltage QRS and borderline left atrial enlargement may not be significant, but it is worthwhile to have a cardiologist evaluate y You took a b complex viramin then felt ill and went to ED. This upper chamber of your heart receives oxygen-poor blood from your body. Front Cardiovasc Med. The following are the most common symptoms of Mitral Valve Prolapse. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the border: none; T-wave inversions in leads V1-V4 are present in 12% of black athletes and are usually preceded by J-point elevation and convex ST segment elevation. 43 year old female. EKG Left Atrial Enlargement l The EKG Guy - www.ekg.md Join the largest ECG community in the world at https://www.facebook.com/TheEKGGuy/Like this video and . In all other situations it is necessary to findthe underlyingcauseand direct treatments towards it. Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. In association with left ventricular hypertrophy: Emergency Physician in Prehospital and Retrieval Medicine in Sydney, Australia. Conditions affecting the left side of the heart, Electrocardiography in Emergency, Acute, and Critical Care, Critical Decisions in Emergency and Acute Care Electrocardiography, Chous Electrocardiography in Clinical Practice: Adult and Pediatric, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Bifid P wave with > 40 ms between the two peaks, Biphasic P wave with terminal negative portion > 40 ms duration, Biphasic P wave with terminal negative portion > 1mm deep, Broad (>110ms), bifid P wave in lead II (P mitrale) with > 40ms between the peaks. 2014 Mar;97 Suppl 3:S132-8. A QTc 500 msec is suggestive of long QT syndrome. [9] By approximating the shape of the left atrium as an ellipsoid, its volume can be calculated from measurements of its dimensions along three perpendicular directions. LAE is often a precursor to atrial fibrillation. Cardiac catheterization. The P-wave will display higher amplitude in lead II and lead V1. An axis of 57 degrees is not a 'ri Had an ecg that showed borderline abnormal, possible left atrial enlargement. Undefined cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. An enlarged heart (cardiomegaly) describes a heart that's bigger than what is typical. BMJ 2002;324:1264. doi: 3. This regurgitation may result in a murmur (abnormal sound in the The Framingham Heart Study. The full CAH agenda can be accessed here. need follow up? Possible left atrial enlargement is a nonspecific finding which is commonly seen in 12 lead EKG. T-wave inversions beyond V2 after age 16 warrants further assessment in Caucasian athletes. It was normal or at least not concerning. Type 2 Brugada ECG pattern (saddle back) is non-specific. Am Heart J. He has a passion for ECG interpretation and medical education | ECG Library |, MBBS (UWA) CCPU (RCE, Biliary, DVT, E-FAST, AAA) Adult/Paediatric Emergency Medicine Advanced Trainee in Melbourne, Australia. You had an ecg. This can be in the form of aspirin or warfarin (Coumadin) therapy. last week ecg read: Study technics (electrocardiogram, echocardiography, exercise test and Holter]. More information: Bays syndrome and interatrial blocks. 1. It is feasible the AF caused the left atrial enlargement. An official website of the United States government. Isolated Sokolow-Lyon voltage criterion for LVH is common in male athletes and does not warrant further investigation. The negative deflection of biphasic (diphasic) P-waves is generally <1 mm deep. P-wave is positiv in limb lead II. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Editorial Team Lead, Sports & Exercise Cardiology Clinical Topic Collection. LAE is suggested by an electrocardiogram (ECG) that has a pronounced notch in the P wave. Surawicz B, et al. Left atrial enlargement is also referred to as P mitrale, and right atrial enlargement is often referred to as P pulmonale. Sinus bradycardia fulfills the criteria for sinus rhythm but the heart rate is slower than 50 beats per minute. Bombelli M, Facchetti R, Cuspidi C et al. 2022 Nov 2;9:1006380. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.1006380. Without seeing the ecg and only given what you wrote, it isn't possible to know whether the ecg is abnormal or not. Common abnormal ECG readings that have a low likelihood of correlating with cardiac disease include the following: Isolated atrial enlargement, especially right atrial enlargement; Ectopic atrial rhythms*: right atrial, left atrial, wandering atrial pacemaker at normal rates; First-degree atrioventricular (AV) block; Borderline QTc 0.44-0.45 borderline/ normal ecg Aguilera Saldaa MA, Garca Moreno LM, Rodrguez Padial L, Navarro Lima A, Snchez Domnguez J. Overvad TF, Nielsen PB, Larsen TB, Sgaard P. Thromb Haemost. possible left atrial enlargement borderline ecg. [1], In the general population, obesity appears to be the most important risk factor for LAE. Wide P wave with prominent negative component. Clinical electrocardiography and ECG interpretation, Cardiac electrophysiology: action potential, automaticity and vectors, The ECG leads: electrodes, limb leads, chest (precordial) leads, 12-Lead ECG (EKG), The Cabrera format of the 12-lead ECG & lead aVR instead of aVR, ECG interpretation: Characteristics of the normal ECG (P-wave, QRS complex, ST segment, T-wave), How to interpret the ECG / EKG: A systematic approach, Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re-entry (reentry), Aberrant ventricular conduction (aberrancy, aberration), Premature ventricular contractions (premature ventricular complex, premature ventricular beats), Premature atrial contraction(premature atrial beat / complex): ECG & clinical implications, Sinus rhythm: physiology, ECG criteria & clinical implications, Sinus arrhythmia (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), Sinus bradycardia: definitions, ECG, causes and management, Chronotropic incompetence (inability to increase heart rate), Sinoatrial arrest & sinoatrial pause (sinus pause / arrest), Sinoatrial block (SA block): ECG criteria, causes and clinical features, Sinus node dysfunction (SND) and sick sinus syndrome (SSS), Sinus tachycardia & Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, Atrial fibrillation: ECG, classification, causes, risk factors & management, Atrial flutter: classification, causes, ECG diagnosis & management, Ectopic atrial rhythm (EAT), atrial tachycardia (AT) & multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT), Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia (AVNRT): ECG features & management, Pre-excitation, Atrioventricular Reentrant (Reentry) Tachycardia (AVRT), Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, Junctional rhythm (escape rhythm) and junctional tachycardia, Ventricular rhythm and accelerated ventricular rhythm (idioventricular rhythm), Ventricular tachycardia (VT): ECG criteria, causes, classification, treatment, Long QT (QTc) interval, long QT syndrome (LQTS) & torsades de pointes, Ventricular fibrillation, pulseless electrical activity and sudden cardiac arrest, Pacemaker mediated tachycardia (PMT): ECG and management, Diagnosis and management of narrow and wide complex tachycardia, Introduction to Coronary Artery Disease (Ischemic Heart Disease) & Use of ECG, Classification of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) & Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI), Clinical application of ECG in chest pain & acute myocardial infarction, Diagnostic Criteria for Acute Myocardial Infarction: Cardiac troponins, ECG & Symptoms, Myocardial Ischemia & infarction: Reactions, ECG Changes & Symptoms, The left ventricle in myocardial ischemia and infarction, Factors that modify the natural course in acute myocardial infarction (AMI), ECG in myocardial ischemia: ischemic changes in the ST segment & T-wave, ST segment depression in myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST segment elevation in acute myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) without ST elevations on 12-lead ECG, T-waves in ischemia: hyperacute, inverted (negative), Wellen's sign & de Winter's sign, ECG signs of myocardial infarction: pathological Q-waves & pathological R-waves, Other ECG changes in ischemia and infarction, Supraventricular and intraventricular conduction defects in myocardial ischemia and infarction, ECG localization of myocardial infarction / ischemia and coronary artery occlusion (culprit), The ECG in assessment of myocardial reperfusion, Approach to patients with chest pain: differential diagnoses, management & ECG, Stable Coronary Artery Disease (Angina Pectoris): Diagnosis, Evaluation, Management, NSTEMI (Non ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction) & Unstable Angina: Diagnosis, Criteria, ECG, Management, STEMI (ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction): diagnosis, criteria, ECG & management, First-degree AV block (AV block I, AV block 1), Second-degree AV block: Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach) & Mobitz type 2 block, Third-degree AV block (3rd degree AV block, AV block 3, AV block III), Management and treatment of AV block (atrioventricular blocks), Intraventricular conduction delay: bundle branch blocks & fascicular blocks, Right bundle branch block (RBBB): ECG, criteria, definitions, causes & treatment, Left bundle branch block (LBBB): ECG criteria, causes, management, Left bundle branch block (LBBB) in acute myocardial infarction: the Sgarbossa criteria, Fascicular block (hemiblock): left anterior & left posterior fascicular block on ECG, Nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay (defect), Atrial and ventricular enlargement: hypertrophy and dilatation on ECG, ECG in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH): criteria and implications, Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH): ECG criteria & clinical characteristics, Biventricular hypertrophy ECG and clinical characteristics, Left atrial enlargement (P mitrale) & right atrial enlargement (P pulmonale) on ECG, Digoxin - ECG changes, arrhythmias, conduction defects & treatment, ECG changes caused by antiarrhythmic drugs, beta blockers & calcium channel blockers, ECG changes due to electrolyte imbalance (disorder), ECG J wave syndromes: hypothermia, early repolarization, hypercalcemia & Brugada syndrome, Brugada syndrome: ECG, clinical features and management, Early repolarization pattern on ECG (early repolarization syndrome), Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (broken heart syndrome, stress induced cardiomyopathy), Pericarditis, myocarditis & perimyocarditis: ECG, criteria & treatment, Eletrical alternans: the ECG in pericardial effusion & cardiac tamponade, Exercise stress test (treadmill test, exercise ECG): Introduction, Indications, Contraindications, and Preparations for Exercise Stress Testing (exercise ECG), Exercise stress test (exercise ECG): protocols, evaluation & termination, Exercise stress testing in special patient populations, Exercise physiology: from normal response to myocardial ischemia & chest pain, Evaluation of exercise stress test: ECG, symptoms, blood pressure, heart rate, performance, P pulmonale: right atrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation), P mitrale: left atrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation), P mitrale: leftatrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation). Sinus bradycardia fulfills the criteria for sinus rhythm but the heart rate is slower than 50 beats per minute. The Diagnostic Yield of Routine Electrocardiography in Hypertension and Implications for Care in a Southwestern Nigerian Practice. Alterations of the mitral valve are the classic causes of left atrial enlargement, both mitral stenosis due to increased pressure, and mitral insufficiency due to volume increase. hospital never told me. It may be used as a complement to echo for a more precise look at the heart valves and heart muscle, or in preparation for heart valve surgery. Increased vagal tone (e.g., sinus bradycardia, first degree atrioventricular block [AVB]) and increased chamber size due to physiologic remodeling (e.g., left ventricular hypertrophy [LVH], bi-atrial enlargement) account for normal ECG patterns seen in highly trained athletes. Biatrial abnormality implies that the ECG indicates both left and right atrial enlargement; i.e a large P-wave in lead II and a large biphasic P-wave in lead V1. Took a b-complex vitamin supplement last week that landed me in er. worrisome? clear: left; EKG normal sinus rhythm / possible left atrial enlargement / borderline ECG - having chest and neck pressure (no pain) - can't get me in for an echo for 3 weeks. Clinical electrocardiography and ECG interpretation, Cardiac electrophysiology: action potential, automaticity and vectors, The ECG leads: electrodes, limb leads, chest (precordial) leads, 12-Lead ECG (EKG), The Cabrera format of the 12-lead ECG & lead aVR instead of aVR, ECG interpretation: Characteristics of the normal ECG (P-wave, QRS complex, ST segment, T-wave), How to interpret the ECG / EKG: A systematic approach, Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re-entry (reentry), Aberrant ventricular conduction (aberrancy, aberration), Premature ventricular contractions (premature ventricular complex, premature ventricular beats), Premature atrial contraction(premature atrial beat / complex): ECG & clinical implications, Sinus rhythm: physiology, ECG criteria & clinical implications, Sinus arrhythmia (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), Sinus bradycardia: definitions, ECG, causes and management, Chronotropic incompetence (inability to increase heart rate), Sinoatrial arrest & sinoatrial pause (sinus pause / arrest), Sinoatrial block (SA block): ECG criteria, causes and clinical features, Sinus node dysfunction (SND) and sick sinus syndrome (SSS), Sinus tachycardia & Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, Atrial fibrillation: ECG, classification, causes, risk factors & management, Atrial flutter: classification, causes, ECG diagnosis & management, Ectopic atrial rhythm (EAT), atrial tachycardia (AT) & multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT), Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia (AVNRT): ECG features & management, Pre-excitation, Atrioventricular Reentrant (Reentry) Tachycardia (AVRT), Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, Junctional rhythm (escape rhythm) and junctional tachycardia, Ventricular rhythm and accelerated ventricular rhythm (idioventricular rhythm), Ventricular tachycardia (VT): ECG criteria, causes, classification, treatment, Long QT (QTc) interval, long QT syndrome (LQTS) & torsades de pointes, Ventricular fibrillation, pulseless electrical activity and sudden cardiac arrest, Pacemaker mediated tachycardia (PMT): ECG and management, Diagnosis and management of narrow and wide complex tachycardia, Introduction to Coronary Artery Disease (Ischemic Heart Disease) & Use of ECG, Classification of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) & Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI), Clinical application of ECG in chest pain & acute myocardial infarction, Diagnostic Criteria for Acute Myocardial Infarction: Cardiac troponins, ECG & Symptoms, Myocardial Ischemia & infarction: Reactions, ECG Changes & Symptoms, The left ventricle in myocardial ischemia and infarction, Factors that modify the natural course in acute myocardial infarction (AMI), ECG in myocardial ischemia: ischemic changes in the ST segment & T-wave, ST segment depression in myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST segment elevation in acute myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) without ST elevations on 12-lead ECG, T-waves in ischemia: hyperacute, inverted (negative), Wellen's sign & de Winter's sign, ECG signs of myocardial infarction: pathological Q-waves & pathological R-waves, Other ECG changes in ischemia and infarction, Supraventricular and intraventricular conduction defects in myocardial ischemia and infarction, ECG localization of myocardial infarction / ischemia and coronary artery occlusion (culprit), The ECG in assessment of myocardial reperfusion, Approach to patients with chest pain: differential diagnoses, management & ECG, Stable Coronary Artery Disease (Angina Pectoris): Diagnosis, Evaluation, Management, NSTEMI (Non ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction) & Unstable Angina: Diagnosis, Criteria, ECG, Management, STEMI (ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction): diagnosis, criteria, ECG & management, First-degree AV block (AV block I, AV block 1), Second-degree AV block: Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach) & Mobitz type 2 block, Third-degree AV block (3rd degree AV block, AV block 3, AV block III), Management and treatment of AV block (atrioventricular blocks), Intraventricular conduction delay: bundle branch blocks & fascicular blocks, Right bundle branch block (RBBB): ECG, criteria, definitions, causes & treatment, Left bundle branch block (LBBB): ECG criteria, causes, management, Left bundle branch block (LBBB) in acute myocardial infarction: the Sgarbossa criteria, Fascicular block (hemiblock): left anterior & left posterior fascicular block on ECG, Nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay (defect), Atrial and ventricular enlargement: hypertrophy and dilatation on ECG, ECG in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH): criteria and implications, Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH): ECG criteria & clinical characteristics, Biventricular hypertrophy ECG and clinical characteristics, Left atrial enlargement (P mitrale) & right atrial enlargement (P pulmonale) on ECG, Digoxin - ECG changes, arrhythmias, conduction defects & treatment, ECG changes caused by antiarrhythmic drugs, beta blockers & calcium channel blockers, ECG changes due to electrolyte imbalance (disorder), ECG J wave syndromes: hypothermia, early repolarization, hypercalcemia & Brugada syndrome, Brugada syndrome: ECG, clinical features and management, Early repolarization pattern on ECG (early repolarization syndrome), Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (broken heart syndrome, stress induced cardiomyopathy), Pericarditis, myocarditis & perimyocarditis: ECG, criteria & treatment, Eletrical alternans: the ECG in pericardial effusion & cardiac tamponade, Exercise stress test (treadmill test, exercise ECG): Introduction, Indications, Contraindications, and Preparations for Exercise Stress Testing (exercise ECG), Exercise stress test (exercise ECG): protocols, evaluation & termination, Exercise stress testing in special patient populations, Exercise physiology: from normal response to myocardial ischemia & chest pain, Evaluation of exercise stress test: ECG, symptoms, blood pressure, heart rate, performance, Normal (physiological) causes of sinus bradycardia, Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia, Treatment of sinus bradycardia: general aspects of management, Algorithm for acute management of bradycardia, Permanent (long-term) treatment of bradycardia, sinus bradycardia due to infarction/ischemia, conduction defects caused byischemia and infarction.
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